Should FixCitationFound in 2-4% of dissertations

MLA Ampersand Ban: Never Use '&' in MLA Citations

Found in 2-4% of dissertations using MLA format. If you're writing (Smith & doc_s3 45), you're importing APA habits into the wrong style guide.

FIX

Replace "&" with "and" in all citations.

What This Issue Is

MLA never uses the ampersand (&) in citations — not in-text, not in your Works Cited list, not anywhere. Where APA uses '&' inside parentheses, MLA always uses the full word 'and.' This applies to parenthetical citations: (Smith and doc_s3 45), narrative citations: Smith and doc_s3 argue that..., and Works Cited entries.

This rule exists because MLA prioritizes readability and treats citations as part of the natural sentence flow. The ampersand is a symbol, and MLA prefers words. It's a philosophical difference between the two styles: APA treats citations as compact data references; MLA treats them as readable text elements.

The most common source of this error is students who learned APA in other courses or who copy citation formats from APA-style papers. If you're switching to MLA for your dissertation, do a global find-and-replace for '&' in your citations. This one mechanical fix can eliminate dozens of formatting errors in minutes.

Why Your Committee Flags It

MLA never uses ampersands—always spell out "and" for multiple authors. Using "&" immediately marks your work as incorrectly formatted.

Before & After Examples

Before

(Smith & doc_s3 23)

After

(Smith and doc_s3 23)

MLA parenthetical citations always use 'and,' never '&.'

Before

(Smith & doc_s3 45)

After

(Smith and doc_s3 45)

MLA narrative citations also use 'and' — the ampersand ban is total.

Before

Smith & doc_s3 argue that student engagement increased.

After

Smith and doc_s3 argue that student engagement increased.

MLA Works Cited entries use 'and' between authors, plus full first names.

Before

Works Cited: Smith, J., & doc_s3, K. "Title." Journal, 2020.

After

Works Cited: Smith, John, and Karen doc_s3. "Title." Journal, 2020.

Self-Check Checklist

Tap each item as you review your chapter.

Related Checks

Must Fix

Citation Format (author page)

5-10% of dissertations

Must Fix

Et Al. Format

2-3% of dissertations

Should Fix

Number Spelling (one-two words)

1-2% of dissertations

Should Fix

Citation Name Consistency

2-5% of dissertations

Should Fix

Ampersand Usage (& in parentheses)

2-4% of dissertations

Frequently Asked Questions

Only if it's part of an official name, like 'Barnes & Noble' or 'AT&T.' In all citation contexts — in-text and Works Cited — MLA uses the word 'and.' There are no exceptions for parenthetical citations.
APA uses '&' inside parentheses as a space-saving convention for compact data references. MLA treats citations as natural language elements and prefers the full word. Neither is right or wrong — they're different design philosophies. What matters is that you follow whichever style your program requires.
Make sure your reference manager output style is set to MLA 9th edition, not APA 7th. In Zotero, this is under Edit > Preferences > Cite. In Mendeley, check Document > Citation Style. After switching, refresh all citations. Any manually typed citations will need to be fixed by hand.

Sources

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